Introduction
Drug addiction is one of the most important health, mental, and social problems, and also causes dangerous behaviors [1]. Despite the popular opinion among society that considers addiction as a phenomenon that occurs most often among men, the growing trend of women addicted to drugs has become increasingly evident since the last quarter of the 20th century. Hence, studying different aspects of addiction has become very important [2]. The equalization of the role of women and men in social phenomena is due to moving away from the traditional way of life, the growth of urbanization and industry, the growth of women’s social movements, employment of women outside the home, and as a result, more mixing of women and men. So, women, like men, are affected by social phenomena, including addiction [3].
According to the latest global report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in 2022, about 284 million people aged between 15 and 64 worldwide experienced drug use in 2020, which showed an increase of 26% compared to the previous decade [4]. Predictions indicate that in 2030, the number of drug and psychotropic users in the world population aged 15-45 will increase to 299 million people [5].
According to the UNODC’s report, the proportion of women in the population of drug users is estimated from 10% in Asian countries to 40% in European countries. Therefore, considering 16 to 38 million drug users in Iran, the number of women who are using drugs is statistically significant. According to a report by Iran’s Narcotics Control Headquarters (DCHQ), the number of addicted women in the country in 2008 was 5.6% out of all people with a substance use disorder; this number reached 9.3% in 2011, 9.6% in 2013, and further increased to 10% in 2019 [6].
According to the DCHQ’s latest statistics, in 2017, there were about 4 continuous and non-continuous drug users in Iran [7]. Moreover, according to the latest epidemiological results in the general population of the country, the prevalence rate of drug use in the country is 4.5%, and the average age of starting drug use is 24.1 years in men and 26.2 years in women, with an average age of 24.3 years. According to the latest statistics published by the Police, the ratio of drug addicts to the total population of the country indicates that Iran has gained the first place of drug users in the world. Research conducted in Iran has estimated the population of drug addicts at 1500000 people, regardless of dilettante drug users [8].
In the field of addiction etiology, various hypotheses have been proposed, none of which alone can explain well the cause of drug addiction [9]. Researchers have cited different causes of addiction, including pain relief, gaining experience, achieving relaxation, improving academic performance, whiling away and entertainment, gaining pleasure, increasing concentration, relieving fatigue, reducing stress, forgetting life problems, peer pressure, self-presentation, desire for social acceptance, family history of drug use and low level of education, emotional and physical abuse, violence, suffering from a mental disorder, personality traits (e.g. reduced impulse control), high emotional needs, depression, and anxiety, hanging out with drug addicted and deviant friends, unemployment, and economic (e.g. poverty) and family (e.g. inappropriate behavior of the family with addicted single people and bad behavior of spouse and children with addicted married people) factors [10-12]. Studies have shown that people with low tolerance, or in other words, low resilience, tend to use drugs to reduce pain and stress caused by physical and psychological diseases. People with low resilience are more likely to experience failure, a feeling resulting in a tendency to drug use, intensification of drug use, and drug addiction [13]. As indicated in a large number of studies, positive family experiences prevent people from drug use [14]. An addicted person’s physical, mental, and social functioning depends on drug use, ultimately resulting in irreparable problems, including mental disorders, emotional turmoil, divorce, increase in crime, the spread of infectious diseases, academic problems, ostentation, sexual deviations, unemployment, suicide, homelessness, and political and economic problems in the society [15, 16]. Addiction causes more dangerous complications in women than in men [17]. For example, the time interval between the first experience of drug use and drug injection is 2 years on average in women and 8 years in men. Research evidence indicates that women turn to drug use later than men do, but they more quickly reach excessive and uncontrolled use. External (e.g. gender roles and societal norms) and internal (e.g. hormones and the reward system) factors contribute to these gender differences [18]. Considering gender differences, psychological problems in female addicts are more common in the form of depression, loss of appetite, as well as personality conflict, while in male addicts, social isolation is more prevalent. As long as the characteristics of the addicted person and the causes of her tendency to addiction are not paid attention to, physical and psychological treatment will only be effective for a short period, and the addicted person will fall back into drugs [19]. 
Knowing the factors that predispose women and men to drug addiction leads to the provision of appropriate solutions to these factors to control and treat addiction. The purpose of this study was to compare the predisposing factors of women and men to drug addiction.

Materials and Methods
This research is a descriptive-comparative study to compare the factors predisposing women and men to drug use. To this end, the female and male addicts introduced to the Tehran State Welfare Organization-(TSWO) dependent de-addiction centers in Tehran City, Iran, were studied. The research population consisted of all drug addicts (men and women) who were introduced to these centers by self-referrals or by family or judicial authorities to quit drug abuse and who met the criteria for inclusion. In the present study, while obtaining the code of ethics from the Ethics Committee of the Islamic Azad University, Khorramabad Branch, the 26 codes approved by the National Committee of Ethics in Medical Science Research were followed.
Among all the men and women referring to these centers, a sample of 350 people was selected using convenience sampling. They were divided into two groups: 200 women and 150 men. The unequal distribution of samples was done deliberately and with the need to examine the women group more closely (as a vulnerable group). In addition to maintaining the statistical test’s power, this method also reflects the reality of the target population of the research. The TSWO-dependent de-addiction centers were considered as the research environment. 
Four conditions were considered as the inclusion criteria: consent to participate in the research, being alert and able to speak, no participation in another similar research, and finally, being citizens of Iran and residents of Tehran. The boredom and fatigue of the research subjects in answering the questions of the questionnaire and their unwillingness to continue answering the questions were considered exclusion criteria.
The data collection process took three months, so from Saturday to Wednesday, from 8:00 AM to 12:00 PM, the researchers visited the desired centers and completed the questionnaires.
A two-part researcher-made questionnaire was used to achieve the research objectives. 
First part is a demographic form with 14 questions, including age, education, type of job, the amount of work per day, having night work, awareness about the addiction consequences, the age of starting to use drugs, the first time of drug use, the first place of drug use, the first companion of drug use, the way to get acquainted with drugs, the type of drug currently used, the method of drug use, and the number of times of drug use per day and week. The second part consisted of addiction predisposing factors in 5 individual dimensions with 5 questions (having a physical or mental illness, history of sexual abuse, special behavioral characteristics).
Family factors included mother and father with 26 questions each (the mother and father’s age, income, addiction, education, physical or mental problem, the parents’ relationship with the person with an addiction and with the other family members, having a stepfather or stepmother, problems in the family such as excessive strictness). Then, there are economic factors with 3 questions (place of residence, Income level, type of housing) and social factors with 3 questions (access to recreational facilities, easy access to drugs, having an addicted friend). Finally, there are cultural factors with 2 questions (stress during school and inattention of the authorities during the study period).
The content validity method was used to validate the data collection tool. In this way, after reading the books, articles, and publications related to the research topic and using the experts’ opinions, a data collection form was prepared and distributed among ten members of the academic staff of the Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery in the Islamic Azad University of Tehran Medical Branch and 10 physicians working in the de-addiction centers. They examined and evaluated the forms and suggested some modifications. After applying the modifications suggested, it was approved and used. The test re-test method was used to determine the reliability of the questionnaire. In this way, first, the questionnaire was distributed among 15 people with an addiction who had been referred to the de-addiction centers. They completed the questionnaire, and after 10 days, the same people answered the questions again. Finally, the instrument reliability was examined using the correlation tests, which was 0.8. After determining the scientific validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the necessary permission was obtained by providing a written letter of introduction from the Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery in the Islamic Azad University of Tehran Medical Branch, presenting it to the Vice-Chancellor of TSWO and introducing the research. Then, the researchers attended the de-addiction centers at 8-12 O’clock on office days to do sampling and distributed the questionnaires in a safe and suitable environment. First, the research objective was presented for the subjects, and then the necessary explanations were given for each question. The subjects were given 90 minutes to complete the questionnaire. They completed the questionnaire in the presence of the researcher. In cases where there were ambiguities in the questionnaire, necessary explanations were provided to the research units to resolve the ambiguities. Regarding the people who did not have enough literacy, the questionnaire was completed by reading the questions by the researcher and writing the provided answers.
All the questionnaires were coded before collecting the information and starting data extraction, and SPSS software, version 24 was used to analyze the data. Points were given based on the subjects’ options to determine each factor. Point 1 was given to the option “not at all,” 2 to “low,” 3 to “average,” 4 to “high,” and 5 to “very high.” Descriptive statistics (absolute and relative frequency distributions, Mean±SD) were used to describe the data, and inferential statistical tests (independent t test for the quantitative variables and the Fisher and chi-square tests for the qualitative variables) were used to analyze them.

Results
Examining the subjects’ demographic characteristics indicated that the mean±SD of the female and male addicts’ ages were 29.62±7.5 and 33.08±7.9 years, respectively. The highest percentage of education in both groups was diploma—women (40%) versus men (38%).
The highest percentage of the women and men participating in the research were employed (28.9%) and self-employed (65.5%), respectively. The highest percentage of the women and men mentioned cannabis and methamphetamine (23.3%) and opium (42.5%) as their first drug use, respectively. The first place of drug use for both groups was their own home. In 31.3% of the women, the first companions in drug use were their classmates, and in 59% of men were their neighborhood friends. Most women mentioned methamphetamine (37.3%) and heroin (37.5%) as the drugs they were using currently. The method of drug use in both groups was smoking. In addition, 72% of the women and 58.5% of the men had moderate knowledge about drug addiction and the associated consequences. The number of working hours per day was significantly less for women than for men. The amount of drug consumption per week and day was significantly higher in the women than in the men. However, the duration of drug consumption was greater in the men than in the women. A statistically significant difference was observed between gender and all the mentioned demographic characteristics in the female and males participating in the study (P<0.05). However, there was no statistically significant difference between the men and women in terms of their ages when they started drug use (Table 1).


Next, the two groups were compared regarding quantitative and qualitative characteristics in 5 dimensions. The individual factors were evaluated based on physical and mental illnesses and specific behavior characteristics. The most common cause of addiction to drugs in both groups was psychological factors, and according to the results of the chi-square test, a significant relationship was observed between gender and the cause of drug addiction. Positive thinking and attitude towards drugs and emotional deficiency were not observed in the majority of the people participating in the study. About 50.7% of the women felt lonely, while 68.5% of the men did not, indicating a statistically significant relationship between gender and loneliness. Moreover, 70.2% of the men had attempted to use drugs to achieve relaxation, which indicates a significant relationship between gender and achieving relaxation with drug use (P<0.05) (Table 2).


The findings related to the family factors indicated that the fathers of the majority of the addicted men and women were alive. The fathers of 56% of the women and 69.7% of the men were self-employed and had education below diploma (45% of the women and 71.3% of the men), indicating a significant relationship between gender and father’s occupation and education level. The majority of the addicted men and women lacked stepfathers or stepmothers, and their fathers did not have addictions in both groups. Both groups stated that their father had no special physical or mental problems. The relationships with the father, the father and the other siblings, and the father and the mother were pretty satisfactory. Most men stated that they had average and high satisfaction with their relationship with their father, but the women stated that it was average, which was statistically significant. The fathers’ and mothers’ average income was 2.61 and 2.44 in the men and 3.03 and 3.13 Million Tomans in the women, respectively, which was a statistically significant difference (P<0.05). 
In both groups, the highest percentage of the mothers were homemakers and had below-diploma education. In both groups, the majority stated that their mothers did not have any physical or mental problems. The level of satisfaction with the mother’s relationship with the other siblings and the satisfaction with the mother’s relationship with her husband was medium in the group of women and high in the group of men. Moreover, the relationship with their mother in both genders was satisfactory at an average level. Regarding the siblings’ addiction in both groups, the majority of the subjects reported no addiction. Among the problems in the family, both groups stated that they had a lot of strictness, laxity, tension, and violent behavior in the family, which was statistically significant (Table 3).


There was a statistically significant difference between gender and all economic, social, and cultural factors (P<0.05) (Table 4). 



Discussion
This study aimed to compare the factors predisposing women and men to drug addiction. The mean age of starting to use drugs in female and male addicts was 21.46 and 20.68 years, respectively. In the study of Asadi et al., the age of the drug addicts participating in the study was 31-40, and the age at which drug use began was 13-18, which is inconsistent with this study [11]. In Faizullahi et al.’s study (2022) [12], the age of starting drug use was 16-13 years, which is lower than the present study. However, in most studies conducted in the country, including the present study, most patients are young and in their third and fourth decades. 
The level of education among the women was mainly diplomas, and among men, it was diplomas, indicating a statistically significant difference. This finding was consistent with Jain et al.’s finding that drug use was more common in people with lower educational levels [20], but it was not consistent with Khazaie et al.’s study [21]. In Ahadi et al.’s study, most subjects had a diploma education, consistent with the present study [19]. In a Sabeti study, most female addicts had secondary education, which was inconsistent with this study [22]. In explaining these findings, it can be said that a high educational level can be a deterrent factor in drug use. 
The highest percentage of the female addicts participating in this study were employed (28.9%), while the majority of the addicted men (65.5%) were self-employed. In Asadi et al.’s study, most of the addicted men were employed as workers [11]. In Feyzih et al.’s study, 51% of the subjects were self-employed, consistent with the present study [23].
 In our study, the method of drug use in both male and female groups was smoking. In line with this research, Feyzih et al. stated that the smoking method prevails over other methods by 72.1% [23]. In the study of Javadi et al., the way of drug consumption among drug addicts in Bojnurd City, Iran, was reported in the form of eating [24].
It was found that 72% of the women and 58.5% of the men participating in our study had moderate knowledge about drug addiction and its consequences. 
The most common cause of drug addiction in both groups in the individual dimension was psychological. In their study, Hughes et al. introduced mental disorders as an important predictor of drug use [25]. 
Regarding family factors, the parents of most of the groups were alive. In both groups, more than half of the fathers were self-employed. In a study by Mohammadi Niko et al., 46.5% of the subjects had their parents alive, most of their fathers were self-employed, and their mothers were housewives [26]. In the study of Khademi Ahmedabad et al., there was no significant relationship between parents’ education and addiction tendencies [27]. 
The relationships with the fathers were at average and high levels in the most addicted men and at an average level in the women, which was statistically significant. The results of the study conducted by Motavalian et al. showed no statistically significant difference between the level of dissatisfaction of the female and male addicts with their parents, which is consistent with our [28]. In the study of Khademi Ahmedabad et al., there was a negative and significant relationship between the emotional state of the family and the tendency to addiction [27].
Among the family problems, both male and female groups experienced a lot of strictness, laxity, tension, and violent behavior in the family. The findings of this research were consistent with the findings of the study conducted by Asadi et al. to find the causes of drug addiction in Ardabil City, Iran [11]. Shalchi et al. showed that the factors of family performance and intergenerational gap can explain young people’s predisposition to drug addiction [29]. The variables related to the family environment play a significant role in the addiction of the members of that family, which is in line with the findings of Skeer et al. [30]. 
More men (81.3%) than women (63.3%) acknowledged that they had easy access to drugs. Ahadi found that easy access to drugs is considered one of the most important factors predisposing a person to drug addiction [19]. Javadi et al. also acknowledged that ease of access to drugs is one of the factors contributing to drug addiction [24]. In explaining these findings, it can be stated that when members of society settle in chaotic urban areas, the weakness of formal and informal social control, the prevalence of deviant activities such as drug trade, and the presence of dilapidated buildings increase the likelihood of young people joining deviant groups.
An average number of female addicts participating in the study stated that their place of study was far from social harm, but more than half of the men said that their place of study was not in a suitable environment. 
In various studies, the leading causes of drug addiction from the point of view of drug addicts were communication with addicted friends and acquaintances, traumatic environment, loneliness and lack of good friends, relative interest in drug use, and curiosity about these drugs, which is consistent with the present study [1]. It can be said that people, especially at a young age, are often influenced by their friends’ actions, behavior, speech, and thoughts. It is in these wrong friendships and socializing with friends that teenagers or young men, for the first time, give a positive answer to the request of their friends who say, “nothing happens at once.”
About 66.3% of the female addicts participating in the study considered the stress of their place of study to be effective in their addiction, but 75.4% of the addicted men did not consider academic stress as a factor affecting their addiction. More women than men in the research considered the neglect of emotional and psychological needs by school officials as an important factor in their addiction. 
The findings of the present study regarding the high vulnerability of drug addicts due to academic stress are in line with the results of Fishbein’s et al. and Moitra et al. studies on the role of high levels of perceived stress in predisposing people to addiction [31, 32]. Sabzian et al. stated that factors related to education and school can play a role in drug addiction [33]. This finding suggests that ineffective long-term coping with stress can lead to negative consequences such as depression, anxiety, and drug use.
Regarding economic factors, most women mentioned that they had rented residences, while most men mentioned that they owned residences. In both groups, the source of income was themselves. In Dargahi et al.’s study, there was a positive and significant relationship between the unemployment and poverty index of addicted men, which is in line with the present study [34]. Similarly, Hajian et al. reported that 75.3% of self-reported drug addicts were living in the city [35]. The results of Asadi et al.’s research on drug addicts in Ardabil City, Iran, showed that among the economic factors, unemployment and low income were the most important factors in drug addiction, which was consistent with our study [11]. In her research, Mohammadi Niko concluded that the vast majority of addicts are either unemployed or have lost their jobs due to addiction [26]. Hajian et al. also concluded that unemployment had a significant effect on drug addiction [35]. It is believed that the living environment influences behavior, which is not consistent with the present study. 
More women than men considered lack of access to recreational facilities as an important factor predisposing them to drug addiction. Aghabakhshi et al. showed that lack of access to suitable tools to spend their free time is an effective factor predisposing young people living in Tehran City to the abuse of industrial drugs [36]. In Zare Shahabadi et al.’s study, there is a positive and significant relationship between the lack of free time and drug addiction among young people in Kabul, which was in line with this study [37].
 About 61.5% of women and 47.4% of men reported their income as average. In the study of Asadi et al., low income is the most important factor in addiction among economic factors, which was consistent with our study [38].
In the present study, it was found that women considered lack of access to recreational facilities as an important factor in their addiction more than men. In the study of Aghabakhshi et al., lack of access to appropriate tools for spending leisure time is a compelling factor in the tendency of Tehrani youth to abuse drugs, which is consistent with our study [36]. In the study of Zare Shahabadi et al., there is a positive and significant relationship between lack of leisure time and drug addiction among Kabul youth, Kabu, Afghanistan, which is consistent with our study [37]. In both groups, the majority of women and men had friends who were addicts. In explaining this finding, it can be said that relationships with bad friends and their deception or pressure play an important role in the tendency toward addiction. 
In the present study, most men considered the stress of school to be effective in their addiction, but most women did not consider academic stress to be effective in their addiction. Sabzian et al. stated that factors related to education and school can play a role in the tendency to use drugs [39]. This finding suggests that ineffective coping with stressors has long-term negative consequences, making life stress a significant factor in drug use and subsequent relapse.
Various organizations and institutions are required to cooperate to reduce drug addiction and prevent the occurrence of this health-social disorder because the problem of addiction has its roots in society. Considering that the prevention of addiction is much more important than the treatment of addiction, it is suggested to research the identification of preventive factors. It is also recommended that similar research be conducted in other cities of Iran. The level of interest, psychological state, and individual, cultural, and social differences of the participants at the time of completing the questionnaire affected their response, which was among the limitations of the present study.

Conclusion
The individual, family, and socioeconomic factors together predispose people to drug addiction. Discovering the effective factors in the tendency of men and women can prevent many social problems. Our results will increase managers’ and planners’ awareness of implementing preventive and control policies and measures for addiction to prevent its consequences.

Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
The present study was approved by the Research Council of the Islamic Azad University, Khorramabad Branch, Khorramabad, Iran.

Funding
This research was supported by the Islamic Azad University, Khorramabad Branch (Code: IR.IAU.B.REC.1402.039).

Authors contributions
Methodology: Zahra Rezaei and Mehran Naghibeiranvand; Investigation, data collection, and writing the original draft: Nasim Allahverdi; Formal analysis and data curation: Simin Valinejad; Conceptualization, review, and editing: Mehran Naghibeiranvand. 

Conflict of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to express their appreciation and gratitude to all the participants, officials, and staff of the research center of Islamic Azad University, Khorramabad Branch, Khorramabad, Iran.


References

1. Safari H Haghi N. [Qualitative study of social factors of drug addiction, case study: Kleibar city drug addicts (Persian)]. The Journal of Sociological Studies. 2021; 13(50):89-104. [DOI:10.30495/jss.2020.1910670.1240]
2. Kendler KS, Ohlsson H, Edwards AC, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. A developmental etiological model for drug abuse in men. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2017; 179:220-8. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.06.036] [PMID]
3. Jahanbakhsh Hosseininik SS, Jahanbakhsh Ganjeh S, Khezri N. [Study of the lived experience of addictive women in Kohgiloyeh and Boyerahmad province (Persian)]. Women’s Studies, Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies (IHCS) Quarterly Journal of Women and Society. 2022; 13(2):145-85. [Link]
4. Alipourasadabadi F, Namdarpour F. [Identification of factors influencing the relapse of women recovered from substance addiction: A qualitative study (Persian)]. Research on Addiction. 2023; 17(68):47-68. [Link]
5. Babaie E, Rabbani H, Rashid K, Hasanvand F. [Developing a model for Women Returning to drug use based on family functioning and family emotional climate mediated by social health in rehabilitated women in Mashhad City (Persian)]. The Women and Families Cultural-Educational. 2023; 18(65):185-206. [Link]  
6. Gholami Abiz M, Enayat H, Ahmadi H. [Qualitative exploration of the contexts and consequences of women's addiction in South Khorasan (Persian)]. Quarterly Journal of Woman and Society. 2021; 12(46):91-105. [DOI:10.30495/jzvj.2021.25899.3348]
7. Hajiha Z, Bahrami Ehsan H. [Individual precipitating factors of Drug Temptation in Addict Women in Tehran: A grounded theory study (Persian)]. Scientific Quarterly Research on Addiction. 2020; 14(55):47-82. [DOI:10.29252/etiadpajohi.14.55.47]
8. Gias K, Mozafari MM, Ahmadi A, Khoda Bamdeh H. [Investigating the causes of women’s tendency to drugs and psychotropic substances and methods of preventing their addiction in Qazvin Social and disciplinary (Persian)]. SJournal of Policing & Social Studies of Women & Family. 2017; 5(1):39-56. [Link]
9. Khanzadeh M, Moosavyzadeh A, Mohamadi R. [The role of Mizaj in preparation for addiction in students (Persian)]. Journal of Research in Behavioral Sciences. 2021; 19(3):455-76. [DOI:10.52547/rbs.19.3.465]
10. Ikoh MU, Smah SO, Okwanya I, Clement UA, Aposhi ZA. Factors affecting entry into drug abuse among youths in Lafia Metropolis: Implications on security. Sage Open. 2019; 9(1):1-15. [DOI:10.1177/2158244018823428]
11. Asadi SM, Porzoor P. [Investigating the causes of tendency to use substances (addiction) in Ardabil (Persian)]. Research on Addiction. 2020; 14(56):169-98. [DOI:10.29252/etiadpajohi.14.56.169]
12. Feizolahi A, Bapiri O. [Investigating the causes, areas and consequences of drug use among adolescents (case study of adolescents in Ilam) (Persian)]. Scientific Quarterly of Research on Addiction. 2022; 15(62):141-65. [DOI:10.52547/etiadpajohi.15.62.141]
13. Vasquez TES, McAuley RJ, Gupta NS, Koshy S, Marmol-Contreras Y, Green TA. Lever-press duration as a measure of frustration in sucrose and drug reinforcement. Psychopharmacology. 2021; 238(4):959-68. [DOI:10.1007/s00213-020-05742-2] [PMID]
14. Hezarian S, Bakhtiarpour S, Pasha R, Asgari P, Hafezi F. [The relationship between family function and drug attitude by mediating role of social adjustment among students (Persian)]. Research on Addiction. 2021; 15(59):139-56. [DOI:10.52547/etiadpajohi.15.59.139]
15. Perruci LG, Diehl A, Da Silveira BV, Teixeira JA, Souza J, Miasso AI, et al. The emotional and psychiatric problems of adolescents on parole whose parents are substance users: A Brazilian cross -sectional study. Journal of Child Health Care. 2021; 25(2):253-67. [DOI:10.1177/1367493520925661]
16. Aram S, Ghofrani M, Salehikia A. [Effect of combination of a ten-week aerobic exercise and vitamin E supplement on blood pressure, heart rate and VO2max of addicted women (Persian)]. Feyz Medical Sciences Journal. 2016; 20(1):16-24. [Link]
17. McHugh RK, Votaw VR, Sugarman DE, Greenfield SF. Sex and gender differences in substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review. 2018; 66:12-23. [DOI:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.012] [PMID]
18. Zakiniaeiz Y, Potenza MN. Gender-related differences in addiction: A review of human studies. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 2018; 23:171-5. [DOI:10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.08.004] [PMID]
19. Ahadi R, Mohammadi S, Toghranegar H. [Societal factors affecting industrial drugs addiction (case study: Zanjan City) (Persian)]. Journal of Legal Research. 2022; 21(49):315-43. [DOI:10.48300/jlr.2022.145214]
20. Jain R, Chang CC, Koto M, Geldenhuys A, Nichol R, Joubert G. Non-medical use of methylphenidate among medical students of the University of the Free State. South African Journal of Psychiatry. 2017; 23:1006. [DOI:10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v23.1006] [PMID]
21. Khazaie H, Najafi F, Alavifar A. Substance abuse prevalence and related factors to it, among students of Kermanshah University of Medical Science in 2011. Journal of Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences. 2013; 17(3):e77112. [Link]
22. Sabeti M. [Study of cultural factors affecting women addiction to drugs (case study: Tehran) (Persian)]. Knowledge Against Drugs Magazine. 2023; 6:25-38. [Link]
23. Feyzi H, Vaisi Raygani A, Abdi A, Shakeri J, Mardokhian M. [The predisposing factors for drug abuse in viewpoints of referrers to Addiction Treatment Centers in Kermanshah (Persian)]. Iranian Journal of Rehabilitation Research in Nursing. 2016; 2(2):47-56. [Link]
24. Javadi M, Ounagh N, Ghorbani A. [Determining the social components affecting the increase of addiction in the society (case study: Bojnourd City) (Persian)]. Research on Addiction. 2022; 15(62):167-84. [DOI:10.52547/etiadpajohi.15.62.167]
25. Hughes T, Szalacha LA, McNair R. Substance abuse and mental health disparities: Comparisons across sexual identity groups in a national sample of young Australian women. Social Science & Medicine. 2010; 71(4):824-31. [DOI:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.05.009] [PMID]
26. Mohammadi Niko A, Ghorbani A, Mohammadi Niko A. [Investigating the role of individual, family, social and economic factors in the tendency to addiction in adultery (Persian)]. Journal of Social Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Shushtar Branch. 2015; 12(3):69-86. [Link]
27. Khademi Ahmedabad M, Sharifi N. [Investigating the relationship between parents’ education and family’s emotional atmosphere with the addiction tendency of male high school students (Persian)]. Journal of New Developments in Psychology. 2019; 2(20):136-44. [Link]
28. Motevaliyan SM, Dokoushkani F, Yahyazadeh Jelodar S. [Comparing the level of youths’ dissatisfaction with their parents and its role in predicting the tendency for social deviations (running away from home, sexual deviation, and drug addiction) (Persian)]. Strategic Research on Social Problems. 2020; 9(3):129-60. [DOI:10.22108/srspi.2020.122420.1529]
29. Shalchi B, Dadkhah M, YaghootiAzarai S. The role of family functioning, generation gap and socioeconomic status in explaining - Prairie addiction of young people. Addiction Research Quarterly. 2015; 9(33):37-52. [Link]
30. Skeer M, McCormick MC, Normand SL, Buka SL, Gilman SE. A prospective study of familial conflict, psychological stress, and the development of substance use disorders in adolescence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2010; 104(1-2):65-72. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.03.017] [PMID]
31. Fishbein D, Novak SP, Krebs C, Warner T, Hammond J. The mediating effect of depressive symptoms on the relationship between traumatic childhood experiences and drug use initiation. Addictive Behaviors. 2014; 36(5):527-31. [DOI:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.12.030] [PMID]
32. Moitra E, Anderson BJ, Stein MD. Perceived stress and substance use in methadone-maintained smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2013; 133(2):785-8. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.08.010] [PMID]
33. Sabzian S, Abdoli A. [Structural modeling of school security with addiction readiness in students: The mediating role of academic avoidance (Persian)]. Research on Addiction. 2023; 17(67):127-52. [DOI:10.52547/etiadpajohi.17.67.127]
34. Dargahi H, Beiranvand A. Economic and social determinants of addiction in Iran with emphasis on business cycles. Economics Research. 2020; 20(78):105-35. [DOI:10.22054/joer.2020.12362]
35. Hajian K, Khirkhah F, Falatoni M. [Epidemiology of addiction among volunteered addicts attending in detoxification centers (Persian)]. Journal of Guilan University of Medical Sciences. 2013; 22(87):22-30. [Link]
36. Aghabakhshi H, Sedighi B, Eskandari M. A survey on the effective factors of the youths' tendency towards industrial drugs abuse'. Social Research. 2009; 2(4):71-87. [Link]
37. Zare Shahabadi A, Firozi SM. [The effective social factors of tendency to drugs among the youth of Kabul City (Persian)]. Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Journal of Social Sciences. 2022; 19(1):109-34. [DOI:10.22067/social.2022.73167.1096]
38. Asadi SM, Porzoor P. [Investigating the causes of tendency to use substances (addiction) in Ardabil (Persian)]. Scientific Quarterly Research on Addiction. 2020; 14(56):169-98. [DOI:10.29252/etiadpajohi.14.56.169]
39. Sabzian S, Abdoli A. [Structural modeling of school security with addiction readiness in students: The mediating role of academic avoidance (Persian)]. Scientific Quarterly Research on Addiction. 2023; 17(67):127-52. [DOI:10.52547/etiadpajohi.17.67.127]